Chapter 10
In the preceding chapter, we saw that the range of the ray of
gravitation of the masses, postulated by the temporalist
model, is given by the formula r = m½. The ray of gravitation is the limit of
the links between the gravitational masses, weak or important (such as stars, galaxies, clusters, and so on…). That means that the
range of the gravitational influence of a mass can be equal or less than r, in
other words, than the acceleration G’ (6,582 10^-8 cm/sec^2) of the
gravitational field. In Newtonian mechanics, the acceleration due to the masses
is also mG/L2. So, if we apply this formula to the Milky Way (about 2-3 10^45
g, radius 50.000 L.Y., we get (in the cgs system) : 2,5 10^45 g x 6,67 10^-8 / 5.10^22 cm x 5.10^22 cm = 6,67 10^-8 cm/sec^2.
The acceleration, at the outer limit of our galaxy is equal to the acceleration
of the external gravitational field. It is, thus, neutralized and, depending of
the temporalist model, its ray of gravitation is
determined by the formula r = m½. (Chapter 9), is 2,5
10^45 ½ = 5.10^22 cm.
We will calculate, for the well-known concentrations of matter, from the
earth planet to the greatest structures of the universe, the theoretical ray of
gravitation, with finished range, and to confront it with dimensions observed
of these various masses (in the cgs system). When the
masses are not known with precision, we considered the total mass of a
structure equal to approximately 10 times the visible mass (in accordance with
the estimates of the total mass of
a structure equal to about 10 times the visible mass (according to
estimate by 4 % visible mass and 24 % the dark mass : 28 / 4 = 7, is
approximately 10 times).
We must, at first, remember that the masses and the distances of the
different structures, especially if they are distant, are relatively accurate.
Thus, ZWICKY (1933), indicates that the relationship between dynamic mass and
visible mass of a structure is about 400. In addition, it is recognized that
the constant of proportionality between redshift and
distance is determined by a factor 2.
Considering all these uncertainties, we will confront the theoretical
gravitational ray of the different cosmic masses and their real gravitational
ray, indicated either by the dimensions of these masses or by the limit of
their gravitational influence on other masses. We consider that if we have,
rarely, a difference of an order of magnitude, this difference is acceptable,
considering the cosmic parameters approximations.
1) The earth : mass 6 10^27 g - ray of gravitation 7,7
10^13 cm - distance from the lunar satellite 3,5 10^10 cm - magnetosphere about 8.10^9 cm ( Philippe Escoubet 2001)
2) The sun : mass 2.10^33 g - ray of gravitation 4,5
10^16 cm - limit of the solar system and interstellar space 1,4 to 1,8 10^15 cm (NASA 1993), heliopause 4,5 10^15
cm, Ort Cloud influenced by stars of the Milky Way 3 10^18 cm (Rosanna L
Hamilton 1999)
3) The globular clusters :
Average mass of 10.000 stars is 2.10^33 g x 10.000 = 2.10^37 g -
estimated total mass 2.10^38 g - ray of gravitation 1,4
10^19 cm - average ray several tens of L.Y. or 2 to 3 10^19 cm (Hartmut Frommert - Christine Kronberg -
2001)
Average mass 1 million stars or 2.10^33 g x 10^6 = 2.10^39 g - estimated
total mass 2.10^40 g - ray of gravitation 1,4 10^20
cm - average ray 200 L.Y. or 2.10^20
cm (Hartmut Frommert -
Christine Kronberg - 2001)
M92 - estimated mass about 330.000 suns or 2.10^33 g x 330.000 = 6,6 10^38 g - ray of gravitation 2,6 10^19 cm - radius
from 30 to 42 L.Y. is 3 to 4 10^19 cm
(Hartmut Frommert -
Christine Kronberg - 2001)
4) The Milky Way : 200 billion stars is 2.10^11 x 2.10^33 g =
4.10^44 g, estimated mass 4.10^44 g x 10 =
4.10^45 g - ray of gravitation 6,3 10^22 cm - radius 50.000 L.Y.
or 5 10^22 cm - satellite dwarf
galaxy SagDEG located to 5 10^22 cm (Hartmut Frommert - Christine Kronberg - 1999) ; the satellites of the Milky Way, the
Little and the Great Magellan Clouds are located at 60 Kpsc
of our galaxy , is 2.10^23 cm.
5) Galaxies clusters : Typical cluster 10^15 masses of
the sun is 2 10^33 g x 10^15 = 2 10^48 g - ray of gravitation 1,4 10^24 cm
- typical Abell radius 1,5 Mpsc
is 5 10^24 cm - (Coma cluster)
(Cambridge Cosmology)
According to the agreement of experts, we have selected the following
numbers:
Group of 10 galaxies: average mass 10^13 sun mass, is 2.10^46 g (average
mass of a galaxy : 2.10^45 g)
Standard cluster : 500 galaxies, average mass
3.10^14 sun mass, is 6.10^47 g (average mass of a galaxy :1,2.10^45 g)
Rich cluster : 3.000 galaxies, average mass
5.10^15 sun mass, is 1.10^49 g (average mass of a galaxy : 3.10^45 g)
We, therefore, selected the mass of 2.10^45 g as average mass of a
galaxy.
6) Cluster of the Virgin (Virgo) : estimated mass 8.10^48 g – ray of gravitation 3.10^24 cm – maximum distance of the
galaxies from the center of the cluster : 7 million
L.Y. is 7.10^24 cm.
7) Superclusters of galaxies : average 10 to 32 clusters per
super cluster - Our super cluster (which contains our Local Group), centred on
Virgo, mass 10^16 masses of the sun is 2 10^33 g x 10^16 = 2 10^49 g - the
ratio mass/luminosity being of 570 indicates the presence of a significant dark
mass - probable ray of gravitation 4,5 10^24 cm / 1.10^25 cm ( about 1,5
to 3 Mpsc ) - radius 2 10^25 cm (Cambridge Cosmology)
8) The Great Attractor : super-supercluster
whose center is the supercluster
ACO 3627 (or Norma cluster) mass 5 10^16 masses of the sun is 2.10^33 g x 5 10^16
= 1.10^50 g ( its mass is probably more
important; one suspects the existence of other indeterminate superclusters -
ray of gravitation 1.10^25 cm - distance from the earth 60 Mpsc or 1,8 10^26 cm. The data are dubious, because owing
to the fact that the Great Attractor is largely hidden by dust of the disc of
the Milky Way (Kraan-Korteweg 1998 - 2000)
9) Great Structures of universe : the
galaxies made of stars, gas and dark matter are grouped into clusters of
galaxies, and then super clusters of galaxies clustered in gigantic formations,
big walls, filaments and huge voids. According to the authors, the universe is structured in foam,
sponge, sheets, pancake or three-dimensional spider web. In fact, it may be
considered that the universe is structured in filaments formed of gas, stars,
clusters and superclusters of galaxies and dark matter. The filaments represent
approximately 10 % of the space and contain 15 % of the galaxies. Their typical
length is between 50 and 80 Mpsc (1,5
and 2,4 10^26 cm). They delimit the border of huge voids. These voids have,
typically, diameters from 25 Mpsc (8.10^25 cm) to 125
Mpsc ((4.10^26 cm). Located between 6 and 10 billion
L.Y. of the earth, the greatest void discovered, in the direction of the Eridan constellation, by Lawrence RUDNICK (August 2007),
would have a diameter of about 1 billion L.Y. (1.10^27 cm). This gigantic void
whose the probability of existence is 5.10-^10 and the various existing
inhomogeneous structures seriously call into question the standard model of
cosmology based on a principle
attributing to the cosmological universe an isotropic and homogeneous
structure. The model of Big Bang, with the expansion of the universe, note the
repetitive and irregular structure of large masses of the universe and
especially of those huge voids from 1.10^26 cm to 1.10^27 cm. The standard
model is unable to explain the causes of the existence of these vast voids
whose the probability is very small (5.10-^10).
The temporalist model, by contrast, provides a
simple explanation of the structure of the universe and the reason for the
existence of filaments and large voids. In the temporalist
model, the gravitation has a finished range as embodied in the concept of ray
of gravitation r = m½ ( r = ray, m = mass). In
filaments, the influence of the gravitation of the galaxies and the clusters of
galaxies is longitudinal because the masses are relatively close and,
therefore, below the threshold of the rays of gravitation. If we take the
example of a rich cluster of galaxies (3.000 galaxies), whose the average mass
is 1.10^49 g, its ray of gravitation is 1.10^49½ = 3.10^24 cm. It can, like
this, exert a gravitational influence on galaxies and clusters of galaxies
whose average distance is 1 Mpsc ( 3.10^24 cm – see
below, article 10), this all along the filaments.
As for the voids, the galaxies,
clusters and superclusters of galaxies can have a gravitational
influence only if their gravitational ray is equal or greater than the radius
of the voids that they border. For example, for a void of 1.10^25 cm, the necessary
gravitational mass is 1.10^50 g, is the
mass of 40.000 galaxies; for a void of 1.10^26 cm, the necessary gravitational
mass is 1.10^52 g, is the mass of 4 million
galaxies; for a void of 1.10^27 cm (void of RUDNICK), the necessary
gravitational mass is 1.10^54 g, is the
mass of 400 million galaxies. The
importance of the masses needed for a gravitational influence of galaxies and
clusters of galaxies on large voids and the rarity of such concentrations of
galaxies explain the existence of these voids, which is a serious contradiction
for the model of
Big Bang.
Let us recall that the concept of expansion of the universe and the Big
Bang are refuted by the temporalist model. In this
model, there is no temporal origin of the universe, nor
singularity.
10) Average rays of gravitation and average distances :
Stars in the galaxies: ray of gravitation 4 10^16 cm - average
distance 1 Psc is 3 10^18 cm
Galaxies in the groups and clusters: ray of gravitation 4 10^22 cm
- average distance 1 Mpsc is 3 10^24 cm
Galaxies clusters in the superclusters: ray of gravitation 1,4 10^24 cm - average distance from 1 to 10 Mpsc is 3 10^24 cm to 3 10^25 cm
Superclusters of galaxies: ray of gravitation 5 10^24 cm to 10^25 cm
- average distance 100 Mpsc is 3 10^26 cm
The voids have average dimensions equal to 1.10^26 cm or higher (1.10^27 cm).
Conclusions : If the preceding results
are summarized, one notes that, in accordance with the requirements of the temporalist model, the sizes of the concentrations of
matter, from the earth to the greatest structures, are, in order of magnitude, equal or lower than the rays of gravitation.
Only the Great Attractor makes exception, with an order of magnitude near. It
is probable that its mass or its distance, or both, are to be revised. This is
all the more probable since the Great Attractor is hidden by dust of the disc
of the Milky Way, which deteriorates the precision of measurements. The dimension
of the voids, about 10^26 cm and more, is also explained by the lower ray of
gravitation of the superclusters of galaxies of about 10^25 cm.
The classical theories of the gravitation at which the range of the
forces is unlimited, just as the Big Bang, can give no account either of the
preceding results or of their precision. The universe is structured at
intervals of distribution in three dimensions, separated by average voids of
120 Mpsc (4 10^26 cm), as in a chess-board. These
structures, not to be understood in the preceding models, rise naturally from
the finished range of the rays of gravitation specific to the temporalist model of gravitation.
Besides the formation of these broad voids, poses a serious problem with
the model of Big Bang. To cross a void of about 4 10^26 cm, at the average
speed for a galaxy of 600 Km/sec, it would be necessary approximately 200
billion years for it, which means that the current situation of the galaxies
and the voids reflects their situation at the time of Big Bang
!
Next : 11 Conclusions, tests and consequences
- Dark matter
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