Chapter 11
Conclusions, comparison, tests and
consequences
Dark matter
Conclusions
Contrary to a
widespread opinion, the model of Big Bang, far from profiting from irrefutable arguments
of its solidity suffer from many and serious difficulties which we enumerated
in chapter 3 (I Big Bang - Conclusions).
The major
arguments of the temporalist model which we propose can be summarized in three
groups:
1) The existence of the
temporalist quantum constant To and his consequences:
a) the
electromagnetic constant of coupling e = h/ 2µ x To
b) the Josephson
effect: the frequency of the produced current is proportional to the tension
measured at the boundaries of a Josephson junction according to w (angular
frequency) = 2 e / h (or To) x V
(tension) that is to say 2 x 4,5546 10.17 Hz (1,519259 10.15 x 299,792) /
299,792 volts (1 ues) x V (volts)
c) the
photoelectric effect: the potential of braking of the electrical current
created by the photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of the
incidental radiation according to V (tension) = 2µ x v (frequency) x h / e (or 1 / To) x 2,99792
d) the constant
of fine structure & = e² / hc = 1 / 137,036 = e / c x To
e) the redshift
of the galaxies z = T / To (T being duration of course of radiation)
g) the quantum
origin of the gravitation with the value of the intensity of the field of
acceleration according to G' x To = c
The intervention
of the temporalist constant To in these various phenomena, dependent or
independent, cannot be put on the account of coincidences. The probability
theory would cancel it. The existence of constant To seems impossible to
circumvent. Only the temporalist model proposes a coherent interpretation of
all these phenomena where the factor To appears. If the temporalist
interpretation is rejected, the facts remain and one must propose a credible
alternative. It does not seem possible for us to consider another one validly,
currently.
2) In 1929, estimated by
Hubble at 500 Km/sec/Mpc, the "pseudo-velocity of recession" of the
galaxies converges today (after decades and more than 153.000 observations of
redshifts by NASA) towards the value of 67,71 Km/sec/Mpc established
theoretically in 1962 by the author. This theoretical value was obtained
by purely physical considerations, independently of all given astronomical
data, wich consolidates its validity.
The last data
given by WMAP ( 2008) made it possible to fix the value of the constant Ho of
Hubble at 68 Km/sec/Mpc what
well confirms the temporalist value of Ho is 67,71 Km/sec/Mpc
3) The temporalist model
implies and proposes a modification of the gravitation. The temporalist model
of gravitation proposes an explanation detailed and coherent of dimensions of
the structures of the universe, from the field of terrestrial gravitation to
the greatest structures of several hundreds of megaparsecs (as well as
comparable voids of dimensions). The model of Big Bang notes these structures
but is impotent to give an account of it.
The numerous
theoretical difficulties of the model of Big Bang which we quote at the
beginning of this chapter disappear in the temporalist model. Let us quote and
answer to them briefly:
Why does the
expansion start beyond the Local Group? - The redshift and the escape effect
start as of the emission of the photons.
The value of the
constant of Hubble, corresponding to the age of the universe, in the model of
Big Bang, is a quantum and nonmacroscopic constant in the temporalist model.
Its value, given theoretically in 1962, is 4,5546 10.17 sec., that is to say
approximately 14,43 billion years. One must note that the most remote
known quasar is located at 14,4 billion light-years (R. Becker and all.
Astron.J. ready for press 2001).The relation of Hubble v = Hd changes, in the
temporalist model into v = 1/To x T (with v effect of escape, To temporalist
constant and T duration of propagation of the radiation) from where To = cT / v
and in numerical values To = 2,997925 10.10 cm x 1,0287 10.14 sec (duration of
1 Mpc) / 6,771 10.6 cm = 4,5546 10.17 sec.
The universe
cannot be homogeneous and isotropic on all the scales because of the rays of
gravitation, different according to masses.
In the
temporalist model, there are no expansion, no primordial explosion, no
emergence of space, time and energy. There is no inflation. There is no
cosmological constant. The cosmic microwave background radiation does not
originate in Big Bang. There is no primordial nucleosynthesis. There is no
limit at the macroscopic age of the universe. There is no critical density of
the universe. The structures of the universe on a large scale, just as the
presence of great voids are the result of the existence of the gravitation with
finished range and the rays of gravitation. The age of the galaxies clusters
and old stars do not pose a problem in the temporalist model.
As we can see
it, the major part of the difficulties of the model of Big Bang, caused by this
model of universe, disappear with the temporalist model. Only two possible
difficulties can be retained in the temporalist model: the existence of the
cosmic microwave background radiation and the current abundance of the light
elements in the universe.
Cosmic microwave
background radiation, as we indicated in chapter 2 ( d - Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation) is not a consequence of the sole model of Big Bang. Its
prediction had been made, without the use of the model of Big Bang, and before
Gamow by: Guillaume (1896), Eddington (1926), Regener (1933), Nernst (1933),
McKellar and Herzberg (1941), Finlay-Freundlich (1953) and Max Born (1953).
These authors had predicted temperatures going from 1,
It is the same
for the current abundance of the light elements in the universe.
It is necessary
to underline a significant element which changes everything in the analysis of
these two phenomena, the existence of a macroscopic unbounded time and its
consequences.
The temporalist
model results from a simple postulate, that of the asymmetry of time and its
application to the physics of the photon. From there rise, without other
assumption, the existence of the temporalist quantum constant t and his quantum
consequences (electric charge, photoelectric effect, constant of fine
structure, etc...), the redshifts, the quantum constant of gravitation G', the
temporalist gravitation and his model of formation of the structures of the
universe.
Comparison
The temporalist model versus Big Bang
THE EXPERIMENTAL FACT: the redshift z of
the remote galaxies
Big Bang :
The hypothesis
of the cosmologic expansion
The temporalist
model :
The hypothesis
of the asymmetry of the time and the influence of the temporalist constant To
on the propagation of the photon
CONSEQUENCES
Big Bang :
Recession of the
galaxies
The
temporalist model :
Stationary
universe
NEW HYPOTHESES
Big Bang :
1) expansion of
the universe
2) explosion
(Big Bang) starting from a singularity of the space-time with an infinite
density and temperature
3) inflation
with a space expansion about 10^50
4) origin of
space, time and energy
5) critical
density of the universe
6) cosmological
constant
7) origin of the
CMBR
8) primordial
nucleosynthesis
NO NEW HYPOTHESIS
The
temporalist model :
1) stationary
universe
2) no explosion
and no singularity with infinite physical values
3) no inflation
4) the universe
exists. It did not have a beginning and will not have any end
5) the universe
does not have criticical density
6) it is no
cosmological constant
7) the CMBR
envisaged by Gamow was founded on a fallacious mathematical argument. Its
existence had been envisaged, long before him, by many researchers
8) it is no
primordial nucleosynthesis
WEAKNESSES OF THE BIG BANG - FORCES
OF THE TEMPORALIST MODEL
Big Bang :
1) the empirical
estimate of the value of Ho, after several decades of improvements and more
than 153.000 observations of redshifts of NASA (data bases IPAC - 2001)
approaches the value of 68 Km/sec/Mpc
The
temporalist model :
1) the
temporalist model established, theoretically, since 1962, the value of
Ho = 1/4,5546 10^17 sec and that of the escape effect of the galaxies: 67,71
Km/sec/Mpc The last data given by WMAP ( 2008) made it possible to fix
the value of the constant Ho of Hubble at 68 Km/sec/Mpc what well confirms the temporalist value of
Ho is 67,71 Km/sec/Mpc.
Big Bang :
2) the problem
of the horizon is solved only by the hypothesis of inflation. This one, which
does not rest on any experimental fact, with a considerable extrapolation of
the laws of physics, has theoretical justification only that to answer, by an
ad hoc hypothesis, highly speculative, with the difficulties of Big Bang. One
does not know the cause of inflation
The
temporalist model :
2) the problem
of the horizon of Big Bang does not arise. There was no inflation. The
temporalist horizon is consisted the stop of time of 4,5546 x 10^17 sec where
the redshift becomes infinite
Big Bang :
3) Why does the
expansion start beyond the Milky Way?
The temporalist
model :
3) the redshift
or the escape effect begins as early as the emission of the photon
Big Bang :
4) Which are the
causes of the primordial explosion?
The
temporalist model :
4) There is no
primordial explosion
Big Bang :
5) What was there
before the primordial explosion? Which is the origin of space, time and energy?
The
temporalist model :
5) the universe
exists; it has neither origin nor end. In the same way for space, time and
energy
Big Bang :
6) the
observations show that the universe is almost entirely flat. Why? Only the ad
hoc and speculative hypothesis of inflation makes it possible to answer it
The
temporalist model :
6) No need for
structure is imposed for the universe
Big Bang :
7) the hypothesis
of the cosmological constant is necessary to the concept of expanding universe
The
temporalist model :
7) the
cosmological constant introduced by Einstein was, in a second time, completely
challenged by him. It estimated that it was the most serious error of its life.
Nothing justifies, today, experimentally, the existence of this constant
Big Bang :
8) the critical
density of the universe determines its evolution and its future
The
temporalist model :
8) There is not critical
density of the universe because of the finished range of the temporalist
gravitation
Big Bang :
9) the
quasi-uniformity of the CMBR poses the problem of the horizon, only solved by
the ad hoc and speculative hypothesis of inflation
The temporalist
model :
9) numerous
interpretations of the origin of the CMBR were proposed, long before Gamow, by
many researchers, without need for resorting to the highly speculative model of
inflation
Big Bang :
10) the model of
the primordial nucleosynthesis suffers from many difficulties (lithium,
deuterium 2D - baryons density - cf chapter 2)
The
temporalist model :
10) There are no
problem of primordial nucleosynthesis since this one does not exist. A recent
observation is in serious contradiction with the primordial nucleosynthesis
(the quasar APM 08279+5255 old of 13,5 billion years contains 3 times more iron
than the solar system old of approximately 5 billion years - XMM-Newton - G
Hasinger and
Big Bang :
11) the very
weak fluctuations of the CMBR are impotent to account for the existence and the
formation of the great structures of the universe (galaxies, clusters and
superclusters, large walls, voids)
The
temporalist model :
11) the great
structures of the universe rise naturally, qualitatively and quantitatively, of
the finished range of the temporalist gravitation
Big Bang :
12) There is
discordance between the calculated age of the universe in various independent
ways (the expansion, the oldest white dwarfs, the chemical elements, the stars
of the globular clusters - cf chapter 2)
The
temporalist model :
12) the
temporalist constant To (4,5546 x 10^17 sec) is a quantum constant and does not
impose any constraint on the age of the macroscopic structures (stars,
galaxies, clusters, etc...)
Big Bang :
13) the model of
Big Bang and its prolongation, the inflationary hypothesis, violate without any
experimental base, a certain number of physical principles: the principle of
conservation of energy, the stop the speed of the light for the propagation of
any physical phenomenon, etc...
The
temporalist model :
13) It respects
strictly all the physical principles: the principle of conservation of energy,
the constancy the speed of the light in the void, etc... It rests on only one
postulate, the asymmetry of time and its consequences: the influence of
constant To on the propagation of the photon, the various quantum parameters,
the finished range of the gravitation, etc...
Big Bang :
14) to alleviate
the many difficulties of the model, one adds hypotheses on hypotheses:
inflation, chaotic inflation, auto-reproduction of universe, multiple
universes, parallel universes, creations of universe in laboratory........
Nothing limits any more delirant imagination since any experimental bond with
reality is broken!!
The
temporalist model :
14) It
endeavours to avoid any speculation which cannot be confirmed by the facts, in
accordance with the principle of Popper. It thus proposes a certain number of tests
likely to confirm it or to contradict it
Tests
Certain
observational facts or tests seem likely to decide between the temporalist
model and the model of Big Bang.
1) According to
the model of Big Bang, the expansion starts beyond the Local Group of galaxies.
According to the temporalist model, the redshift occurs as of the emission of
the photon. Perhaps would it be possible, by a statistical analysis of speeds
of stars, with border of our Local Group, to highlight the evidence the regular
shift towards the red of radiation, according to the distance (or the
duration), below the very limits of Local Group ?
2) Another
observational test can, if it is realizable, slice in a decisive way between
the universe spatially relatively static of the temporalist model and the
expanding universe of Big Bang. Indeed, if we compare the spectra of the
galaxies with, for example, 50 years of interval, two cases of figure are
possible. In the temporalist universe, the spectrum of the stationary remote
galaxies, located at 13 - 14 billion light-years of us will not have varied. On
the other hand, in an expanding universe, in 50 years, the galaxies expanding
at relativistic speeds, being located from us further, will have a speed and
thus a redshift different from those which they had 50 years earlier. If it
were possible to highlight the difference or the absence in difference of the
shift wavelengths of the spectrum of the remote galaxies, between two 50 years
observations distant, this result would constitute a decisive test to slice
between the temporalist model and the model of expansion of Big Bang.
3) One can
consider two series of tests of the temporalist model, the ones founded on
space, the others on time. In the first category, the preceding test would make
it possible to choose between a stationary temporalist universe and an
expanding universe. Other tests are based on the coordinate of time. Thus,
according to the temporalist model, a radiation being propagated in space
undergoes a redshift. This shift due to the existence of the temporalist
constant To does not depend on traversed space but on past time. One can thus
consider a test allowing to detect this temporal or temporalist redshift of a
radiation, according to past time. An experimentation as the Virgo project
where a laser beam crosses an optical way of 150 km could allow, if required,
to confirm or cancel the temporalist model. Other similar tests can be
imagined. According to the temporalist model, a laser beam considered between
two mirrors for a certain length of time undergoes a redshift. This shift, if
one could detect it by rather precise measurements, could confirm or cancel the
temporalist model.
4) In the field
of the gravitation, the temporalist model proposes the finished range of the
fields of gravitation, in opposition with the other theories of the
gravitation. Chapter 10 (Masses and ray of gravitation) enumerates ten cases
which confirm this proposal. One can plan, if the smallness of the effects were
measurable, to check the finished range of the ray of gravitation in
experiments comparable with that of the torsion bars of Etwöös.
The temporalist
model, as we have seen, proposes considerable possible tests of its
refutability, following Popper's meaning.
The anomalous radial acceleration of
Pioneer 10
For more than 20
years a problem has intrigued the planetary scientists and physicists " a
tiny, unexplained sunward acceleration in the motions of the Pioneer 10,
Pioneer 11, and Ulysses spacecraft " (www.geocities. com/solarstormmonitor/Pioneer.html).Many
other sites on the Web bring information on this subject.
This anomalous
acceleration has several characteristics:
1) Its value,
according to authors', would be of 7,59 x 10^-8 cm/sec^2
(http://renshaw.teleinc.com/papers/prl-pi/prl-pi.stm),
8,74 (+or -
1,33) x 10^-8 cm/sec^2
(http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/newsgroups/mond/messages/22.html),
" about 10
billion times smaller than the acceleration we feel from Earth' s gravitational
pull " (www.geocities. com/solarstormmonitor/Pioneer.html -
http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNStat.html).
2) The order of
magnitude of this anomalous acceleration is c x Ho (Hubble constant).
3) This
anomalous acceleration, independent of the distance, is constant for a
spacecraft velocity.
4) This
anomalous acceleration is radial.
This unexplained
effect resulted very precisely from the universal temporalist isotropic field
of acceleration G' = c / To with G' temporalist constant of gravitation, c
speed of the light and To temporalist constant is 6,582 x 10^-8 cm/sec^2 =
2,997925 x 10^10 cm/sec / 4,5546 X 10^17 sec.
The temporalist
model proposes:
1) The order of
magnitude of this anomalous acceleration c x Ho (Hubble constant) corresponds
to the temporalist model with c / To (Ho = 1/To) = G '.
2) When the
spacecrafts leave a circular or elliptic trajectory to take a radial trajectory
directed out of the solar system, the influence of the universal temporalist
field of acceleration appears and slows down the speed of the spacecrafts
(Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Ulysses, Galileo, etc...).
3) The universal
temporalist field of acceleration does not disturb the circular or elliptic
orbits of the planets of the solar system but only the radial trajectories.
4) An
experimental measurement validates the temporalist model. In September 1998,
the slowing of the speed of Pioneer 10 had led to a delay on its envisaged
trajectory of approximately 400.000 km.
The radial trajectory of Pioneer 10 started between 1973 and 1974 had thus
lasted approximately 24,5 years is 7,73 x10^8 sec. The deceleration for this
duration with a constant of acceleration of 6,582 x 10^-8 cm/sec^2 is equal to
6,582 x 10^-8 cm/sec^2 x 7,73 x 10^8 sec x 7,73 x 10^8 sec = 3,93293 x 10^10 cm
= 393293 km. order of magnitude
5) The anomalous
acceleration of Pioneer 10 is similar to the order of magnitude of this who
exists in the galaxies and clusters of galaxies i.e. the problem of the dark
matter, that is to say G’ = 6,582 x 10^-8 cm/sec^2
The temporalist model
proposes that the mystery of the radial anomalous acceleration is solved,
theoretically, by the temporalist model which it validates
Consequences
The temporalist
model rests on a fundamental and single postulate, the existence of the quantum
constant To. It proposes a new approach of the physical universe. Its largest
force of credibility, is according to us, to bring closer facts, apparently
very distant, like the redshift from the galaxies, to the fundamental constants
of the quantum electrodynamics and the gravitational phenomena. This synthesis
was neither required nor wanted. It rises, in a natural way, from the existence
of the temporalist constant To.
The temporalist
model proposes a universe very different from the expanding universe of Big
Bang:
The universe
does not know an expansion and is relatively stationary.
The universe
knew neither primordial explosion, neither inflation phase, nor primordial
nucleosynthesis, nor emergence of time, space and energy.
The universe
does not have critical density.
The universe
does not have a cosmological constant.
The universe
exists. It did not have a beginning and will not have any end.
The temporalist
constant To is a quantum and nonmacroscopic constant.
There are
nevertheless a temporalist horizon, a stop, imposed by the existence of
constant To and the redshift of radiations.
The universe
does not have an age but macroscopic lifespans ago (of stars, galaxies,
structures on a large scale, etc...) which can possibly exceed the value of
constant To : 4,5546 x 10^17 sec.
The universe,
spatially, does not have limits. The visible universe is limited by the
temporalist horizon.
The gravitation
has a finished range, proportional to the masses. The rays of gravitation
determine dimensions and the distances from the structures of the universe
(galaxies, clusters, voids, etc...).
The universe is
relatively stationary in space but evolutionary in time.
The problem of the dark matter
The dark matter
(or missing matter) is estimated about 85 % of the total matter. One detects it
in the galaxies, the galaxies clusters, as well as in the greatest structures
of the universe. Many candidates were proposed (MACHOs, neutrinos, WIMPs, brown
dwarf stars, supermassif black holes, etc...) but, for the moment, its nature
remains unknown.
Which are the
currently well-known characters of the dark matter ?
1) the dark
matter follows mainly the luminous matter in its localization in the galaxies,
the galaxies clusters and even the great structures of a few ten of megaparsecs
2) the dark
matter follows the irregularities of density of distribution of luminous matter
in all the visible universe
3) the dark
matter represents of 10 with 100 times the mass of luminous matter
4) the dark mass
does not exist or is not perceptible in the large voids of several ten with
several hundred of megaparsecs (Richard Schaeffer 2001)
We propose the
identification of temporalist field of acceleration with dark matter.We
indicate below the arguments in favour of our proposal:
1) the temporalist
field emanating from the photons, therefore sources of light, well corresponds
to the space distribution of the dark mass
2) the
temporalist field, because of its origin, follows necessarily the
irregularities of the density of distribution of luminous matter in all the
visible universe
3) the
temporalist field, according to the temporalist model, emanates from the
damping of the vibrations of the photons and thus of a constant loss of energy
(redshift). The fact that the percentage from 90 to 99 % of dark matter is
located in the universe near the sources of light is in phase with the
assumption of their temporalist origin
4) a contrario,
the great voids which are not containing luminous matter cannot thus contain
dark matter
5) the temporalist
field is not a hypothetical field but a field which necessarily rises
from the temporalist model
6) the
temporalist field, whose vectors are gravitons, is not a luminous field
The temporalist
model proposes a physical universe structured by three normative constants
which constitute the borders of our world: h, c and To. The relations between
these fundamental universal constants generate all the richness of the physical
universe.
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